Calidad y seguridad de la leche cruda de vaca producida en Panamá
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.sidebar##
ISSN: 1680-8894
E-ISSN: 2219-6714
Sección
Artículos
Artículos
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.main##
Enviado:
Aug 5, 2021
Publicado: Feb 28, 2022
Publicado: Feb 28, 2022
Resumen
La leche proporciona nutrientes esenciales y es una fuente importante de energía alimentaria, proteínas de alta calidad y grasas. Contribuye considerablemente a la ingestión necesaria de nutrientes como el calcio, magnesio, selenio, riboflavina, vitamina B12 y ácido pantoténico. El consumo de este alimento puede representar diferencias en la calidad de las dietas de las personas sin acceso a una nutrición adecuada, especialmente entre los niños. La composición de la leche varía de acuerdo a la incidencia de múltiples factores como la raza, tiempo de lactancia, alimentación, genética, condición climática, estado de salud y estrés de los animales, etc. La calidad y seguridad de la leche cruda de vaca puede verse perjudicada por diferentes razones, microorganismos, residuos químicos y otros contaminantes, lo que incide significativamente sobre la salud pública. El incremento de microorganismos en la leche causa importantes pérdidas. Actualmente, existe muy poca o ninguna publicación o referencia a nivel nacional que indique una caracterización de calidad de la leche cruda de vaca según su condición fisicoquímica, ni microbiológica. No obstante, los escasos trabajos existentes evidencian condiciones que requieren un mayor estudio y seguimiento para considerar el estado general de los hatos lecheros del país. De lo anterior, se desprende la necesidad de realizar estudios de Investigación, Desarrollo e innovación (I+D+i), que permitan establecer las condiciones de calidad de la leche que se produce en el país y correlacionar esta condición a los parámetros de calidad establecidos internacionalmente.
Palabras clave
Leche cruda de vaca, calidad de leche, parámetros físico-químicos, composición, microbiología.Descargas
La descarga de datos todavía no está disponible.
##plugins.themes.bootstrap3.article.details##
Cómo citar
Montero-Prado, P. (2022). Calidad y seguridad de la leche cruda de vaca producida en Panamá. I+D Tecnológico, 18(1), 27-36. https://doi.org/10.33412/idt.v18.1.3480
Citas
(1) J. M. Jay, Microbiología moderna de los alimentos., 5.a ed. Zaragoza, España.: Editorial ACRIBIA S.A., 2009
(2) A. Carvajal, R. Felmer, F. Mujica, M. Ortíz, B. Sagredo, y X. Valderrama, «Impacto de la biotecnología en el sector lácteo.» Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Chile., 2011. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://consorciolechero.cl/chile/documentos/publicaciones/24junio/impacto-de-la-biotecnologia-en-el-sector-lacteo-potenciales-nichos-de-aplicacion-en-chile.pdf
(3) T. J. Britz, C. Lamprecht, y G. O. Sigge, «Dealing with Environmental Issues», en Advanced Dairy Science and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 262-293. doi: 10.1002/9780470697634.ch7
(4) P. Walstra, J. Wouters, y T. Geurts, Dairy Science and Technology, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, 2006. Accedido: abr. 12, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.routledge.com/Dairy-Science-and-Technology/Walstra-Walstra-Wouters-Geurts/p/book/9780824727635
(5) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, «Dairy production and products: Milk composition», 2013. http://www.fao.org/dairy-production-products/products/milk-composition/en/ (accedido dic. 02, 2020)
(6) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, «FAOSTAT statistical database.», 2020. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (accedido sep. 16, 2020)
(7) Food and Drug Administration (FDA), «Pasteurized milk ordinance (PMO)». 2019. Accedido: dic. 21, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.farad.org/pasteurized-milk-ordinance.html
(8) A. L. Kelly y L. Bach Larsen, «1 - Milk biochemistry», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 3-26. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.1.3
(9) I. R. T. Renhe, Í. T. Perrone, G. M. Tavares, P. Schuck, y A. F. de Carvalho, «Chapter 2 - Physicochemical Characteristics of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 29-43. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00002-X
(10) U. Bernabucci et al., «Effect of summer season on milk protein fractions in Holstein cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 3, pp. 1815-1827, mar. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8788
(11) O. M. Harstad y H. Steinshamn, «9 - Cows’ diet and milk composition», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 223-245. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.3.223
(12) T. Huppertz y A. L. Kelly, «Properties and Constituents of Cow’s Milk», en Milk Processing and Quality Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 23-47. doi: 10.1002/9781444301649.ch2
(13) J. Mukherjee, K. De, M. Chaudhury, y A. K. Dang, «Seasonal variation in in vitro immune activity of milk leukocytes in elite and non-elite crossbred cows of Indian sub-tropical semi-arid climate», Biological Rhythm Research, vol. 46, n.o 3, pp. 425-433, may 2015, doi: 10.1080/09291016.2015.1020200
(14) M. Franzoi, G. Niero, G. Visentin, M. Penasa, M. Cassandro, y M. De Marchi, «Variation of Detailed Protein Composition of Cow Milk Predicted from a Large Database of Mid-Infrared Spectra», Animals, vol. 9, n.o 4, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, p. 176, abr. 2019. Accedido: dic. 02, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/4/176
(15) R. C. Laben, «Factors Responsible for Variation in Milk Composition», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 46, n.o 11, pp. 1293-1301, nov. 1963, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(63)89264-4
(16) R. S. Rossi et al., «Diagnostic accuracy of Somaticell, California Mastitis Test, and microbiological examination of composite milk to detect Streptococcus agalactiae intramammary infections», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 101, n.o 11, pp. 10220-10229, nov. 2018, doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-14753
(17) M. M. M. Vissers y F. Driehuis, «On-Farm Hygienic Milk Production», en Milk Processing and Quality Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 1-22. doi: 10.1002/9781444301649.ch1.
(18) L. F. S. P. Barbosa et al., «Somatic cell count and type of intramammary infection impacts fertility from in vitro produced embryo transfer», Theriogenology, vol. 108, pp. 291-296, mar. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.12.025
(19) P. Cremonesi et al., «Main Pathogens Detected in Milk», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.22977-6
(20) K. A. Dolecheck, A. García-Guerra, y L. E. Moraes, «Quantifying the effects of mastitis on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: A meta-analysis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 102, n.o 9, pp. 8454-8477, sep. 2019, doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-15127
(21) United States Deparment of Agriculture, «Milk Quality, Milking Procedures, and Mastitis on U.S. Dairies, 2014». USDA–APHIS–VS–CEAH–NAHMS NRRC Building B, M.S. 2E7 2150 Centre Avenue Fort Collins, CO 80526–8117 970.494.7000 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/nahms, 2014. Accedido: ene. 04, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/dairy14/Dairy14_dr_Mastitis.pdf
(22) T. Bobbo et al., «Associations between pathogen-specific cases of subclinical mastitis and milk yield, quality, protein composition, and cheese-making traits in dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 6, pp. 4868-4883, jun. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12353
(23) A. L. Michel y C. M. McCrindle, «An Overview of Zoonoses with Importance to the Dairy Industry», FAO. Animal Production and Health, p. 5, 2005, [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/3/y6007e/y6007e00.pdf
(24) L. M. Perin, J. G. Pereira, L. S. Bersot, y L. A. Nero, «Chapter 3 - The Microbiology of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 45-64. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00003-1
(25) T. Baars, «Chapter 4 - Regulations and Production of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 65-89. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00004-3
(26) J. Hamann, «10 - Mastitis and raw milk quality, safety and yield», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 246-263. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.3.246
(27) C. H. Knight, «Chapter 1 - Raw Milk Physiology», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 1-27. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00001-8
(28) Comisión del Codex Alimentarius, «Código de prácticas de higiene para la leche y los productos lácteos.» CAC/RCP 57-2004. (Food and Agriculture Organization-World Health Organization, 2004. [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXC%2B57-2004%252FCXC_057s.pdf
(29) B. Bonfoh et al., «Microbiological quality of cows’ milk taken at different intervals from the udder to the selling point in Bamako (Mali)», Food Control, vol. 14, n.o 7, pp. 495-500, oct. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0956-7135(02)00109-3
(30) M. Brousett-Minaya, A. Torres, A. Chambi, B. Mamani, y H. Gutiérrez, «Calidad fisicoquímica, microbiológica y toxicológica de leche cruda en las cuencas ganaderas de la región Puno–Perú», Scientia Agropecuaria, vol. 6, n.o 3, Art. n.o 3, sep. 2015, doi: 10.17268/sci.agropecu.2015.03.03
(31) T. de Graaf, J. J. Romero Zuñiga, M. Caballero, y R. H. Dwinger, «Microbiological quality aspects of cow’s milk at a smallholder cooperative in Turrialba, Costa Rica.», Revue d’Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, vol. 50, n.o 1, pp. 57-64, 1997, Accedido: feb. 05, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19970403794
(32) Y. Ma, C. Ryan, D. M. Barbano, D. M. Galton, M. A. Rudan, y K. J. Boor, «Effects of Somatic Cell Count on Quality and Shelf-Life of Pasteurized Fluid Milk1», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 83, n.o 2, pp. 264-274, feb. 2000, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)74873-9
(33) E. Swai y L. Schoonman, «Microbial quality and associated health risks of raw milk marketed in the Tanga region of Tanzania», Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, vol. 1, n.o 3, pp. 217-222, jun. 2011, doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60030-0
(34) M. J. Paape, B. Poutrel, A. Contreras, J. C. Marco, y A. V. Capuco, «Milk Somatic Cells and Lactation in Small Ruminants», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 84, pp. E237-E244, jun. 2001, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)70223-8
(35) P. D. Constable, K. W. Hinchcliff, S. H. Done, y W. Grünberg, Eds., «20 - Diseases of the Mammary Gland», en Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), W.B. Saunders, 2017, pp. 1904-2001. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-5246-0.00020-6
(36) K. J. Hand, A. Godkin, y D. F. Kelton, «Milk production and somatic cell counts: A cow-level analysis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 3, pp. 1358-1362, mar. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4927
(37) T. Halasa, M. Nielen, R. B. M. Huirne, y H. Hogeveen, «Stochastic bio-economic model of bovine intramammary infection», Livestock Science, vol. 124, n.o 1, pp. 295-305, sep. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2009.02.019
(38) A. Napoli, D. Aiello, L. Di Donna, H. Prendushi, y G. Sindona, «Exploitation of Endogenous Protease Activity in Raw Mastitic Milk by MALDI-TOF/TOF», Anal. Chem., vol. 79, n.o 15, pp. 5941-5948, ago. 2007, doi: 10.1021/ac0704863
(39) P. Ruegg, «Premiums, Production and Pails of Discarded Milk How Much Money Does Mastitis Cost You?», p. 7, 2005
(40) N. Singh y S. Anand, «Analytical Methods | Microbiological☆», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.23005-9
(41) D. M. Barbano, Y. Ma, y M. V. Santos, «Influence of Raw Milk Quality on Fluid Milk Shelf Life1,2», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 89, pp. E15-E19, mar. 2006, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72360-8
(42) S. Geisslitz y K. A. Scherf, «1.50 - Proteomics in Food Quality», en Comprehensive Foodomics, A. Cifuentes, Ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2021, pp. 699-717. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.22762-5
(43) A. Gunay y U. Gunay, «Effects of Clinical Mastitis on Reproductive Performance in Holstein Cows», Acta Vet. Brno, vol. 77, n.o 4, pp. 555-560, 2008, doi: 10.2754/avb200877040555
(44) C. J. Hogarth, J. L. Fitzpatrick, A. M. Nolan, F. J. Young, A. Pitt, y P. D. Eckersall, «Differential protein composition of bovine whey: A comparison of whey from healthy animals and from those with clinical mastitis», PROTEOMICS, vol. 4, n.o 7, pp. 2094-2100, 2004, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/pmic.200300723
(45) P. L. Ruegg, P. Fricke, y M. J. Fuenzalida, «Impact of mastitis on reproductive performance», p. 7, 2015
(46) D. Wolfenson, G. Leitner, y Y. Lavon, «The Disruptive Effects of Mastitis on Reproduction and Fertility in Dairy Cows», Italian Journal of Animal Science, vol. 14, n.o 4, p. 4125, ene. 2015, doi: 10.4081/ijas.2015.4125
(47) W. Vanderhaeghen, S. Piepers, F. Leroy, E. Van Coillie, F. Haesebrouck, y S. De Vliegher, «Identification, typing, ecology and epidemiology of coagulase negative staphylococci associated with ruminants», Vet J, vol. 203, n.o 1, pp. 44-51, ene. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.001
(48) R. A. Batavani, S. Asri, y H. Naebzadeh, «The effect of subclinical mastitis on milk composition in dairy cows», Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 8, n.o 3, pp. 205-211, dic. 2007, doi: 10.22099/ijvr.2007.925.
(49) P. L. Ruegg, «Risks, Realities and Responsibilities Associated with Mastitis Treatments, available in online: www.nmconline.org», presentado en Proc. Reg. Meeting National Mastitis Council, Ghent, Belgium, 2014. Accedido: ene. 12, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://andysci.wisc.edu/2014/08/29/cow-talk-with-an-expert-mastitis-treatments/
(50) M. F. Addis et al., «Relationship between milk cathelicidin abundance and microbiologic culture in clinical mastitis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 4, pp. 2944-2953, abr. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12110
(51) A. F. Cunha et al., «Comparison of antibody repertories against Staphylococcus aureus in healthy and infected dairy cows with a distinct mastitis history and vaccinated with a polyvalent mastitis vaccine», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 103, n.o 5, pp. 4588-4605, may 2020, doi: 10.3168/jds.2019-17084
(52) M. A. S. Moreira, A. S. Júnior, M. C. Lima, y S. L. da Costa, «Chapter 11 - Infectious Diseases in Dairy Cattle», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 235-258. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00011-0
(53) T. Tomazi et al., «Association of herd-level risk factors and incidence rate of clinical mastitis in 20 Brazilian dairy herds», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 161, pp. 9-18, dic. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.10.007
(54) G. Leitner, Y. Lavon, U. Merin, S. Jacoby, R. Shaked, y N. Silanokove, «Major Considerations in Managing Subclinical Mastitis During Lactation in Modern Dairy Farms | IVIS», Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, vol. 72, n.o 2, 2017, Accedido: dic. 23, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.ivis.org/library/israel-journal-of-veterinary-medicine/israel-journal-of-veterinary-medicine-vol-722-jun/major-considerations-managing-subclinical-mastitis-during-lactation-modern-dairy-farms
(55) P. L. Ruegg, «Improving Treatments of Subclinical Mastitis». University of WI, Dept. of Dairy Science, 2013. Accedido: dic. 23, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://milkquality.wisc.edu/whats-new/treatment-of-subclinical-mastitis/
(56) S. McDougall, «Bovine mastitis: epidemiology, treatment and control», New Zealand Veterinary Journal, vol. 50, n.o sup3, pp. 81-84, ene. 2002, doi: 10.1080/00480169.2002.36274
(57) M. Busanello, R. S. Rossi, L. D. Cassoli, J. C. F. Pantoja, y P. F. Machado, «Estimation of prevalence and incidence of subclinical mastitis in a large population of Brazilian dairy herds», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 8, pp. 6545-6553, ago. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12042
(58) «Council Directive 92/46/EEC». 1992. Accedido: dic. 21, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0046
(59) L. Martins, M. M. Barcelos, R. I. Cue, K. L. Anderson, M. V. dos Santos, y J. L. Gonçalves, «Chronic subclinical mastitis reduces milk and components yield at the cow level», Journal of Dairy Research, vol. 87, n.o 3, pp. 298-305, ago. 2020, doi: 10.1017/S0022029920000321
(60) S. Piepers, L. D. Meulemeester, A. de Kruif, G. Opsomer, H. W. Barkema, y S. D. Vliegher, «Prevalence and distribution of mastitis pathogens in subclinically infected dairy cows in Flanders, Belgium», Journal of Dairy Research, vol. 74, n.o 4, pp. 478-483, nov. 2007, doi: 10.1017/S0022029907002841
(61) B. H. P. van den Borne, T. Halasa, G. van Schaik, H. Hogeveen, y M. Nielen, «Bioeconomic modeling of lactational antimicrobial treatment of new bovine subclinical intramammary infections caused by contagious pathogens», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 93, n.o 9, pp. 4034-4044, sep. 2010, doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-3030
(62) M. L. M. Cruzado-Bravo et al., «Occurrence of Arcobacter spp. in Brazilian Minas frescal cheese and raw cow milk and its association with microbiological and physicochemical parameters», Food Control, vol. 109, p. 106904, mar. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106904
(63) T. Halasa, K. Huijps, O. Østerås, y H. Hogeveen, «Economic effects of bovine mastitis and mastitis management: A review», Veterinary Quarterly, vol. 29, n.o 1, pp. 18-31, ene. 2007, doi: 10.1080/01652176.2007.9695224
(64) C. S. F. Oliveira, H. Hogeveen, A. M. Botelho, P. V. Maia, S. G. Coelho, y J. P. A. Haddad, «Cow-specific risk factors for clinical mastitis in Brazilian dairy cattle», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 121, n.o 3, pp. 297-305, oct. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.08.001
(65) D. Schwarz, D. E. Santschi, J. Durocher, y D. M. Lefebvre, «Evaluation of the new differential somatic cell count parameter as a rapid and inexpensive supplementary tool for udder health management through regular milk recording», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 181, p. 105079, ago. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105079
(66) R. N. Zadoks, H. G. Allore, T. J. Hagenaars, H. W. Barkema, y Y. H. Schukken, «A mathematical model of Staphylococcus aureus control in dairy herds», Epidemiology & Infection, vol. 129, n.o 2, pp. 397-416, oct. 2002, doi: 10.1017/S0950268802007483
(67) K. L. Anderson, M. T. Correa, A. Allen, y R. R. Rodriguez, «Fresh cow mastitis monitoring on day 3 postpartum and its relationship to subsequent milk production», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 93, n.o 12, pp. 5673-5683, dic. 2010, doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2885
(68) M. J. Auldist, «Milk Quality and Udder Health | Effect on Processing Characteristics», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818766-1.00003-9
(69) A. L. Bhutto, R. D. Murray, y Z. Woldehiwet, «California mastitis test scores as indicators of subclinical intra-mammary infections at the end of lactation in dairy cows», Research in Veterinary Science, vol. 92, n.o 1, pp. 13-17, feb. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.10.006
(70) C. Böhnlein, G. Fiedler, J. Loop, C. M. A. P. Franz, y J. Kabisch, «Microbiological quality and safety of raw milk from direct sale in northern Germany», International Dairy Journal, p. 104944, dic. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104944
(71) J. L. Gonçalves et al., «Bovine subclinical mastitis reduces milk yield and economic return», Livestock Science, vol. 210, pp. 25-32, abr. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2018.01.016
(72) H. Hogeveen, K. Huijps, y T. Lam, «Economic aspects of mastitis: New developments», New Zealand Veterinary Journal, vol. 59, n.o 1, pp. 16-23, ene. 2011, doi: 10.1080/00480169.2011.547165
(73) J. Katholm, T. W. Bennedsgaard, M. T. Koskinen, y E. Rattenborg, «Quality of bulk tank milk samples from Danish dairy herds based on real-time polymerase chain reaction identification of mastitis pathogens», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 10, pp. 5702-5708, oct. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-5307
(74) Y. Kuang et al., «Characterization of bacterial population of raw milk from bovine mastitis by culture-independent PCR–DGGE method», Biochemical Engineering Journal, vol. 45, n.o 1, pp. 76-81, jun. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2009.02.010
(75) E. Lozada-Soto, C. Maltecca, K. Anderson, y F. Tiezzi, «Analysis of milk leukocyte differential measures for use in management practices for decreased mastitis incidence», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 103, n.o 1, pp. 572-582, ene. 2020, doi: 10.3168/jds.2019-16355
(76) J. B. Ndahetuye et al., «A cross sectional study of prevalence and risk factors associated with subclinical mastitis and intramammary infections, in dairy herds linked to milk collection centers in Rwanda», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 179, p. 105007, jun. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105007
(77) C. Syring et al., «Bovine mastitis: The diagnostic properties of a PCR-based assay to monitor the Staphylococcus aureus genotype B status of a herd, using bulk tank milk», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 7, pp. 3674-3682, jul. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4968
(78) T. Tomazi, J. L. Gonçalves, J. R. Barreiro, M. A. Arcari, y M. V. dos Santos, «Bovine subclinical intramammary infection caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci increases somatic cell count but has no effect on milk yield or composition», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 5, pp. 3071-3078, may 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8466
(79) L. Zhang, S. Boeren, A. C. M. van Hooijdonk, J. M. Vervoort, y K. A. Hettinga, «A proteomic perspective on the changes in milk proteins due to high somatic cell count», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 8, pp. 5339-5351, ago. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-9279
(80) M. N. Alhussien y A. K. Dang, «Milk somatic cells, factors influencing their release, future prospects, and practical utility in dairy animals: An overview», Vet World, vol. 11, n.o 5, pp. 562-577, may 2018, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2018.562-577
(81) M. Alhussien, M. Kaur, P. Manjari, S. P. Kimothi, A. K. Mohanty, y A. K. Dang, «A comparative study on the blood and milk cell counts of healthy, subclinical, and clinical mastitis Karan Fries cows», Vet World, vol. 8, n.o 5, pp. 685-689, may 2015, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2015.685-689
(82) M. E. Alnakip, «The Immunology of Mammary Gland of Dairy Ruminants between Healthy and Inflammatory Conditions», Journal of Veterinary Medicine, vol. 2014, pp. 1-31, 2014, Accedido: ene. 16, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jvm/2014/659801/
(83) D. K. Swain, M. S. Kushwah, M. Kaur, y A. K. Dang, «Neutrophil dynamics in the blood and milk of crossbred cows naturally infected with Staphylococcus aureus», Vet World, vol. 8, n.o 3, pp. 336-345, mar. 2015, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2015.336-345
(84) M. Damm, C. Holm, M. Blaabjerg, M. N. Bro, y D. Schwarz, «Differential somatic cell count—A novel method for routine mastitis screening in the frame of Dairy Herd Improvement testing programs», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 6, pp. 4926-4940, jun. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12409
(85) G. T. Fosgate, I. M. Petzer, y J. Karzis, «Sensitivity and specificity of a hand-held milk electrical conductivity meter compared to the California mastitis test for mastitis in dairy cattle», The Veterinary Journal, vol. 196, n.o 1, pp. 98-102, abr. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.07.026
(86) H. Lomander, C. Svensson, C. Hallén-Sandgren, H. Gustafsson, y J. Frössling, «Associations between decreased fertility and management factors, claw health, and somatic cell count in Swedish dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 96, n.o 10, pp. 6315-6323, oct. 2013, doi: 10.3168/jds.2012-6475
(87) J. C. McNally, M. A. Crowe, J. F. Roche, y M. E. Beltman, «Effects of physiological and/or disease status on the response of postpartum dairy cows to synchronization of estrus using an intravaginal progesterone device», Theriogenology, vol. 82, n.o 9, pp. 1263-1272, dic. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.08.006
(88) F. C. Thomas, T. Geraghty, P. B. A. Simões, F. M. Mshelbwala, H. Haining, y P. D. Eckersall, «A pilot study of acute phase proteins as indicators of bovine mastitis caused by different pathogens», Research in Veterinary Science, vol. 119, pp. 176-181, ago. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.06.015
(89) M. J. Fuenzalida, P. M. Fricke, y P. L. Ruegg, «The association between occurrence and severity of subclinical and clinical mastitis on pregnancies per artificial insemination at first service of Holstein cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 6, pp. 3791-3805, jun. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8997
(90) Y. Lavon, E. Ezra, G. Leitner, y D. Wolfenson, «Association of conception rate with pattern and level of somatic cell count elevation relative to time of insemination in dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 94, n.o 9, pp. 4538-4545, sep. 2011, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4293
(91) R. G. M. Olde Riekerink, H. W. Barkema, y H. Stryhn, «The Effect of Season on Somatic Cell Count and the Incidence of Clinical Mastitis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 90, n.o 4, pp. 1704-1715, abr. 2007, doi: 10.3168/jds.2006-567
(92) Comunidad Andina, «Leche Cruda. NA0063:2009». Comunidad Andina, 2009
(93) East African Community, «Eat African Standard. Raw cow milk-Specification». 2006
(94) European Economic Community, «Council directive 92/46/EEC. Commission Document 392L0046.» 1992. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0046
(95) Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Pesca y Alimentos, «Industria lechera-Sistema integrado de gestión de la lecheria Argentina. E 229/16- SAGyP.» Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca, 2016
(96) Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo, «Estimación de la producción de leche de vaca en la república», 2020. https://www.inec.gob.pa/archivos/P7421312-13.pdf (accedido dic. 02, 2020)
(97) Asamblea Nacional, «Decreto de Gabinete 229 del 16 de julio de 1969.» Gaceta Oficial del Estado 16,537 del 4 de febrero de 1970, 1969. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://docs.panama.justia.com/federales/decretos-de-gabinete/decreto-de-gabinete-229-de-1969-feb-4-1970.pdf
(98) «Cadena Agroalimentaria de Leche. Panamá». https://mida.gob.pa, 2017. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://mida.gob.pa
(99) D. Berroa, «Informe Final de la Consultoría Sobre la Calidad de la Leche Producida en Panamá a Nivel de Fincas y de Acuerdo a las Normativas Vigentes, en Contraste con las Condiciones de Infraestructura y Manejo del Ganado», TCP/PAN/3402, 2015
(100) C. Gómez, M. Tarté, U. Barría, H. Hernández, C. Rengifo Herrera, y E. Pile, «Mastitis subclínica en explotaciones lecheras del distrito de La Chorrera, Panamá.», Scientia, vol. 26, n.o 2, pp. 37-44, 2017
(101) A. Chang, E. Pile, E. Delgado, y I. Domínguez, «Mastitis entre animales procedentes de fincas productoras de leche grado c en Tortí y algunos corregimientos de Darién, Panamá.», Revista Saberes APUDEP, vol. 2, n.o 1, pp. 80-88, 2019. Accedido: ene. 17, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/saberes_apudep/article/view/877
(102) P. Montero-Prado, G. A. Ruiz Morales, y A. Fosatti Carrillo, «Physicochemical characterization and correlation of raw cow’s milk according to classification assigned in Panama», Agronomía Mesoamericana, vol. 32, n.o 3, pp. 939-948, 2021, doi: 10.15517/am.v32i3.45471
(2) A. Carvajal, R. Felmer, F. Mujica, M. Ortíz, B. Sagredo, y X. Valderrama, «Impacto de la biotecnología en el sector lácteo.» Instituto de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Chile., 2011. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://consorciolechero.cl/chile/documentos/publicaciones/24junio/impacto-de-la-biotecnologia-en-el-sector-lacteo-potenciales-nichos-de-aplicacion-en-chile.pdf
(3) T. J. Britz, C. Lamprecht, y G. O. Sigge, «Dealing with Environmental Issues», en Advanced Dairy Science and Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 262-293. doi: 10.1002/9780470697634.ch7
(4) P. Walstra, J. Wouters, y T. Geurts, Dairy Science and Technology, Second Edition. Taylor & Francis Group, 2006. Accedido: abr. 12, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.routledge.com/Dairy-Science-and-Technology/Walstra-Walstra-Wouters-Geurts/p/book/9780824727635
(5) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, «Dairy production and products: Milk composition», 2013. http://www.fao.org/dairy-production-products/products/milk-composition/en/ (accedido dic. 02, 2020)
(6) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation, «FAOSTAT statistical database.», 2020. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (accedido sep. 16, 2020)
(7) Food and Drug Administration (FDA), «Pasteurized milk ordinance (PMO)». 2019. Accedido: dic. 21, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.farad.org/pasteurized-milk-ordinance.html
(8) A. L. Kelly y L. Bach Larsen, «1 - Milk biochemistry», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 3-26. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.1.3
(9) I. R. T. Renhe, Í. T. Perrone, G. M. Tavares, P. Schuck, y A. F. de Carvalho, «Chapter 2 - Physicochemical Characteristics of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 29-43. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00002-X
(10) U. Bernabucci et al., «Effect of summer season on milk protein fractions in Holstein cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 3, pp. 1815-1827, mar. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8788
(11) O. M. Harstad y H. Steinshamn, «9 - Cows’ diet and milk composition», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 223-245. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.3.223
(12) T. Huppertz y A. L. Kelly, «Properties and Constituents of Cow’s Milk», en Milk Processing and Quality Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 23-47. doi: 10.1002/9781444301649.ch2
(13) J. Mukherjee, K. De, M. Chaudhury, y A. K. Dang, «Seasonal variation in in vitro immune activity of milk leukocytes in elite and non-elite crossbred cows of Indian sub-tropical semi-arid climate», Biological Rhythm Research, vol. 46, n.o 3, pp. 425-433, may 2015, doi: 10.1080/09291016.2015.1020200
(14) M. Franzoi, G. Niero, G. Visentin, M. Penasa, M. Cassandro, y M. De Marchi, «Variation of Detailed Protein Composition of Cow Milk Predicted from a Large Database of Mid-Infrared Spectra», Animals, vol. 9, n.o 4, Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, p. 176, abr. 2019. Accedido: dic. 02, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.mdpi.com/2076-2615/9/4/176
(15) R. C. Laben, «Factors Responsible for Variation in Milk Composition», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 46, n.o 11, pp. 1293-1301, nov. 1963, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(63)89264-4
(16) R. S. Rossi et al., «Diagnostic accuracy of Somaticell, California Mastitis Test, and microbiological examination of composite milk to detect Streptococcus agalactiae intramammary infections», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 101, n.o 11, pp. 10220-10229, nov. 2018, doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-14753
(17) M. M. M. Vissers y F. Driehuis, «On-Farm Hygienic Milk Production», en Milk Processing and Quality Management, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2008, pp. 1-22. doi: 10.1002/9781444301649.ch1.
(18) L. F. S. P. Barbosa et al., «Somatic cell count and type of intramammary infection impacts fertility from in vitro produced embryo transfer», Theriogenology, vol. 108, pp. 291-296, mar. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.12.025
(19) P. Cremonesi et al., «Main Pathogens Detected in Milk», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.22977-6
(20) K. A. Dolecheck, A. García-Guerra, y L. E. Moraes, «Quantifying the effects of mastitis on the reproductive performance of dairy cows: A meta-analysis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 102, n.o 9, pp. 8454-8477, sep. 2019, doi: 10.3168/jds.2018-15127
(21) United States Deparment of Agriculture, «Milk Quality, Milking Procedures, and Mastitis on U.S. Dairies, 2014». USDA–APHIS–VS–CEAH–NAHMS NRRC Building B, M.S. 2E7 2150 Centre Avenue Fort Collins, CO 80526–8117 970.494.7000 http://www.aphis.usda.gov/nahms, 2014. Accedido: ene. 04, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.aphis.usda.gov/animal_health/nahms/dairy/downloads/dairy14/Dairy14_dr_Mastitis.pdf
(22) T. Bobbo et al., «Associations between pathogen-specific cases of subclinical mastitis and milk yield, quality, protein composition, and cheese-making traits in dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 6, pp. 4868-4883, jun. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12353
(23) A. L. Michel y C. M. McCrindle, «An Overview of Zoonoses with Importance to the Dairy Industry», FAO. Animal Production and Health, p. 5, 2005, [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/3/y6007e/y6007e00.pdf
(24) L. M. Perin, J. G. Pereira, L. S. Bersot, y L. A. Nero, «Chapter 3 - The Microbiology of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 45-64. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00003-1
(25) T. Baars, «Chapter 4 - Regulations and Production of Raw Milk», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 65-89. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00004-3
(26) J. Hamann, «10 - Mastitis and raw milk quality, safety and yield», en Improving the Safety and Quality of Milk, M. W. Griffiths, Ed. Woodhead Publishing, 2010, pp. 246-263. doi: 10.1533/9781845699420.3.246
(27) C. H. Knight, «Chapter 1 - Raw Milk Physiology», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 1-27. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00001-8
(28) Comisión del Codex Alimentarius, «Código de prácticas de higiene para la leche y los productos lácteos.» CAC/RCP 57-2004. (Food and Agriculture Organization-World Health Organization, 2004. [En línea]. Disponible en: http://www.fao.org/fao-who-codexalimentarius/sh-proxy/en/?lnk=1&url=https%253A%252F%252Fworkspace.fao.org%252Fsites%252Fcodex%252FStandards%252FCXC%2B57-2004%252FCXC_057s.pdf
(29) B. Bonfoh et al., «Microbiological quality of cows’ milk taken at different intervals from the udder to the selling point in Bamako (Mali)», Food Control, vol. 14, n.o 7, pp. 495-500, oct. 2003, doi: 10.1016/S0956-7135(02)00109-3
(30) M. Brousett-Minaya, A. Torres, A. Chambi, B. Mamani, y H. Gutiérrez, «Calidad fisicoquímica, microbiológica y toxicológica de leche cruda en las cuencas ganaderas de la región Puno–Perú», Scientia Agropecuaria, vol. 6, n.o 3, Art. n.o 3, sep. 2015, doi: 10.17268/sci.agropecu.2015.03.03
(31) T. de Graaf, J. J. Romero Zuñiga, M. Caballero, y R. H. Dwinger, «Microbiological quality aspects of cow’s milk at a smallholder cooperative in Turrialba, Costa Rica.», Revue d’Élevage et de Médecine Vétérinaire des Pays Tropicaux, vol. 50, n.o 1, pp. 57-64, 1997, Accedido: feb. 05, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.cabdirect.org/cabdirect/abstract/19970403794
(32) Y. Ma, C. Ryan, D. M. Barbano, D. M. Galton, M. A. Rudan, y K. J. Boor, «Effects of Somatic Cell Count on Quality and Shelf-Life of Pasteurized Fluid Milk1», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 83, n.o 2, pp. 264-274, feb. 2000, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(00)74873-9
(33) E. Swai y L. Schoonman, «Microbial quality and associated health risks of raw milk marketed in the Tanga region of Tanzania», Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine, vol. 1, n.o 3, pp. 217-222, jun. 2011, doi: 10.1016/S2221-1691(11)60030-0
(34) M. J. Paape, B. Poutrel, A. Contreras, J. C. Marco, y A. V. Capuco, «Milk Somatic Cells and Lactation in Small Ruminants», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 84, pp. E237-E244, jun. 2001, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(01)70223-8
(35) P. D. Constable, K. W. Hinchcliff, S. H. Done, y W. Grünberg, Eds., «20 - Diseases of the Mammary Gland», en Veterinary Medicine (Eleventh Edition), W.B. Saunders, 2017, pp. 1904-2001. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-5246-0.00020-6
(36) K. J. Hand, A. Godkin, y D. F. Kelton, «Milk production and somatic cell counts: A cow-level analysis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 3, pp. 1358-1362, mar. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4927
(37) T. Halasa, M. Nielen, R. B. M. Huirne, y H. Hogeveen, «Stochastic bio-economic model of bovine intramammary infection», Livestock Science, vol. 124, n.o 1, pp. 295-305, sep. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2009.02.019
(38) A. Napoli, D. Aiello, L. Di Donna, H. Prendushi, y G. Sindona, «Exploitation of Endogenous Protease Activity in Raw Mastitic Milk by MALDI-TOF/TOF», Anal. Chem., vol. 79, n.o 15, pp. 5941-5948, ago. 2007, doi: 10.1021/ac0704863
(39) P. Ruegg, «Premiums, Production and Pails of Discarded Milk How Much Money Does Mastitis Cost You?», p. 7, 2005
(40) N. Singh y S. Anand, «Analytical Methods | Microbiological☆», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.23005-9
(41) D. M. Barbano, Y. Ma, y M. V. Santos, «Influence of Raw Milk Quality on Fluid Milk Shelf Life1,2», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 89, pp. E15-E19, mar. 2006, doi: 10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(06)72360-8
(42) S. Geisslitz y K. A. Scherf, «1.50 - Proteomics in Food Quality», en Comprehensive Foodomics, A. Cifuentes, Ed. Oxford: Elsevier, 2021, pp. 699-717. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.22762-5
(43) A. Gunay y U. Gunay, «Effects of Clinical Mastitis on Reproductive Performance in Holstein Cows», Acta Vet. Brno, vol. 77, n.o 4, pp. 555-560, 2008, doi: 10.2754/avb200877040555
(44) C. J. Hogarth, J. L. Fitzpatrick, A. M. Nolan, F. J. Young, A. Pitt, y P. D. Eckersall, «Differential protein composition of bovine whey: A comparison of whey from healthy animals and from those with clinical mastitis», PROTEOMICS, vol. 4, n.o 7, pp. 2094-2100, 2004, doi: https://doi.org/10.1002/pmic.200300723
(45) P. L. Ruegg, P. Fricke, y M. J. Fuenzalida, «Impact of mastitis on reproductive performance», p. 7, 2015
(46) D. Wolfenson, G. Leitner, y Y. Lavon, «The Disruptive Effects of Mastitis on Reproduction and Fertility in Dairy Cows», Italian Journal of Animal Science, vol. 14, n.o 4, p. 4125, ene. 2015, doi: 10.4081/ijas.2015.4125
(47) W. Vanderhaeghen, S. Piepers, F. Leroy, E. Van Coillie, F. Haesebrouck, y S. De Vliegher, «Identification, typing, ecology and epidemiology of coagulase negative staphylococci associated with ruminants», Vet J, vol. 203, n.o 1, pp. 44-51, ene. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.001
(48) R. A. Batavani, S. Asri, y H. Naebzadeh, «The effect of subclinical mastitis on milk composition in dairy cows», Iranian Journal of Veterinary Research, vol. 8, n.o 3, pp. 205-211, dic. 2007, doi: 10.22099/ijvr.2007.925.
(49) P. L. Ruegg, «Risks, Realities and Responsibilities Associated with Mastitis Treatments, available in online: www.nmconline.org», presentado en Proc. Reg. Meeting National Mastitis Council, Ghent, Belgium, 2014. Accedido: ene. 12, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://andysci.wisc.edu/2014/08/29/cow-talk-with-an-expert-mastitis-treatments/
(50) M. F. Addis et al., «Relationship between milk cathelicidin abundance and microbiologic culture in clinical mastitis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 4, pp. 2944-2953, abr. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12110
(51) A. F. Cunha et al., «Comparison of antibody repertories against Staphylococcus aureus in healthy and infected dairy cows with a distinct mastitis history and vaccinated with a polyvalent mastitis vaccine», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 103, n.o 5, pp. 4588-4605, may 2020, doi: 10.3168/jds.2019-17084
(52) M. A. S. Moreira, A. S. Júnior, M. C. Lima, y S. L. da Costa, «Chapter 11 - Infectious Diseases in Dairy Cattle», en Raw Milk, L. A. Nero y A. F. De Carvalho, Eds. Academic Press, 2019, pp. 235-258. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-810530-6.00011-0
(53) T. Tomazi et al., «Association of herd-level risk factors and incidence rate of clinical mastitis in 20 Brazilian dairy herds», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 161, pp. 9-18, dic. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2018.10.007
(54) G. Leitner, Y. Lavon, U. Merin, S. Jacoby, R. Shaked, y N. Silanokove, «Major Considerations in Managing Subclinical Mastitis During Lactation in Modern Dairy Farms | IVIS», Israel Journal of Veterinary Medicine, vol. 72, n.o 2, 2017, Accedido: dic. 23, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.ivis.org/library/israel-journal-of-veterinary-medicine/israel-journal-of-veterinary-medicine-vol-722-jun/major-considerations-managing-subclinical-mastitis-during-lactation-modern-dairy-farms
(55) P. L. Ruegg, «Improving Treatments of Subclinical Mastitis». University of WI, Dept. of Dairy Science, 2013. Accedido: dic. 23, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://milkquality.wisc.edu/whats-new/treatment-of-subclinical-mastitis/
(56) S. McDougall, «Bovine mastitis: epidemiology, treatment and control», New Zealand Veterinary Journal, vol. 50, n.o sup3, pp. 81-84, ene. 2002, doi: 10.1080/00480169.2002.36274
(57) M. Busanello, R. S. Rossi, L. D. Cassoli, J. C. F. Pantoja, y P. F. Machado, «Estimation of prevalence and incidence of subclinical mastitis in a large population of Brazilian dairy herds», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 8, pp. 6545-6553, ago. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12042
(58) «Council Directive 92/46/EEC». 1992. Accedido: dic. 21, 2020. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/ES/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0046
(59) L. Martins, M. M. Barcelos, R. I. Cue, K. L. Anderson, M. V. dos Santos, y J. L. Gonçalves, «Chronic subclinical mastitis reduces milk and components yield at the cow level», Journal of Dairy Research, vol. 87, n.o 3, pp. 298-305, ago. 2020, doi: 10.1017/S0022029920000321
(60) S. Piepers, L. D. Meulemeester, A. de Kruif, G. Opsomer, H. W. Barkema, y S. D. Vliegher, «Prevalence and distribution of mastitis pathogens in subclinically infected dairy cows in Flanders, Belgium», Journal of Dairy Research, vol. 74, n.o 4, pp. 478-483, nov. 2007, doi: 10.1017/S0022029907002841
(61) B. H. P. van den Borne, T. Halasa, G. van Schaik, H. Hogeveen, y M. Nielen, «Bioeconomic modeling of lactational antimicrobial treatment of new bovine subclinical intramammary infections caused by contagious pathogens», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 93, n.o 9, pp. 4034-4044, sep. 2010, doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-3030
(62) M. L. M. Cruzado-Bravo et al., «Occurrence of Arcobacter spp. in Brazilian Minas frescal cheese and raw cow milk and its association with microbiological and physicochemical parameters», Food Control, vol. 109, p. 106904, mar. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2019.106904
(63) T. Halasa, K. Huijps, O. Østerås, y H. Hogeveen, «Economic effects of bovine mastitis and mastitis management: A review», Veterinary Quarterly, vol. 29, n.o 1, pp. 18-31, ene. 2007, doi: 10.1080/01652176.2007.9695224
(64) C. S. F. Oliveira, H. Hogeveen, A. M. Botelho, P. V. Maia, S. G. Coelho, y J. P. A. Haddad, «Cow-specific risk factors for clinical mastitis in Brazilian dairy cattle», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 121, n.o 3, pp. 297-305, oct. 2015, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2015.08.001
(65) D. Schwarz, D. E. Santschi, J. Durocher, y D. M. Lefebvre, «Evaluation of the new differential somatic cell count parameter as a rapid and inexpensive supplementary tool for udder health management through regular milk recording», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 181, p. 105079, ago. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105079
(66) R. N. Zadoks, H. G. Allore, T. J. Hagenaars, H. W. Barkema, y Y. H. Schukken, «A mathematical model of Staphylococcus aureus control in dairy herds», Epidemiology & Infection, vol. 129, n.o 2, pp. 397-416, oct. 2002, doi: 10.1017/S0950268802007483
(67) K. L. Anderson, M. T. Correa, A. Allen, y R. R. Rodriguez, «Fresh cow mastitis monitoring on day 3 postpartum and its relationship to subsequent milk production», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 93, n.o 12, pp. 5673-5683, dic. 2010, doi: 10.3168/jds.2009-2885
(68) M. J. Auldist, «Milk Quality and Udder Health | Effect on Processing Characteristics», en Reference Module in Food Science, Elsevier, 2020. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818766-1.00003-9
(69) A. L. Bhutto, R. D. Murray, y Z. Woldehiwet, «California mastitis test scores as indicators of subclinical intra-mammary infections at the end of lactation in dairy cows», Research in Veterinary Science, vol. 92, n.o 1, pp. 13-17, feb. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.10.006
(70) C. Böhnlein, G. Fiedler, J. Loop, C. M. A. P. Franz, y J. Kabisch, «Microbiological quality and safety of raw milk from direct sale in northern Germany», International Dairy Journal, p. 104944, dic. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104944
(71) J. L. Gonçalves et al., «Bovine subclinical mastitis reduces milk yield and economic return», Livestock Science, vol. 210, pp. 25-32, abr. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2018.01.016
(72) H. Hogeveen, K. Huijps, y T. Lam, «Economic aspects of mastitis: New developments», New Zealand Veterinary Journal, vol. 59, n.o 1, pp. 16-23, ene. 2011, doi: 10.1080/00480169.2011.547165
(73) J. Katholm, T. W. Bennedsgaard, M. T. Koskinen, y E. Rattenborg, «Quality of bulk tank milk samples from Danish dairy herds based on real-time polymerase chain reaction identification of mastitis pathogens», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 10, pp. 5702-5708, oct. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-5307
(74) Y. Kuang et al., «Characterization of bacterial population of raw milk from bovine mastitis by culture-independent PCR–DGGE method», Biochemical Engineering Journal, vol. 45, n.o 1, pp. 76-81, jun. 2009, doi: 10.1016/j.bej.2009.02.010
(75) E. Lozada-Soto, C. Maltecca, K. Anderson, y F. Tiezzi, «Analysis of milk leukocyte differential measures for use in management practices for decreased mastitis incidence», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 103, n.o 1, pp. 572-582, ene. 2020, doi: 10.3168/jds.2019-16355
(76) J. B. Ndahetuye et al., «A cross sectional study of prevalence and risk factors associated with subclinical mastitis and intramammary infections, in dairy herds linked to milk collection centers in Rwanda», Preventive Veterinary Medicine, vol. 179, p. 105007, jun. 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2020.105007
(77) C. Syring et al., «Bovine mastitis: The diagnostic properties of a PCR-based assay to monitor the Staphylococcus aureus genotype B status of a herd, using bulk tank milk», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 95, n.o 7, pp. 3674-3682, jul. 2012, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4968
(78) T. Tomazi, J. L. Gonçalves, J. R. Barreiro, M. A. Arcari, y M. V. dos Santos, «Bovine subclinical intramammary infection caused by coagulase-negative staphylococci increases somatic cell count but has no effect on milk yield or composition», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 5, pp. 3071-3078, may 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8466
(79) L. Zhang, S. Boeren, A. C. M. van Hooijdonk, J. M. Vervoort, y K. A. Hettinga, «A proteomic perspective on the changes in milk proteins due to high somatic cell count», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 8, pp. 5339-5351, ago. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-9279
(80) M. N. Alhussien y A. K. Dang, «Milk somatic cells, factors influencing their release, future prospects, and practical utility in dairy animals: An overview», Vet World, vol. 11, n.o 5, pp. 562-577, may 2018, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2018.562-577
(81) M. Alhussien, M. Kaur, P. Manjari, S. P. Kimothi, A. K. Mohanty, y A. K. Dang, «A comparative study on the blood and milk cell counts of healthy, subclinical, and clinical mastitis Karan Fries cows», Vet World, vol. 8, n.o 5, pp. 685-689, may 2015, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2015.685-689
(82) M. E. Alnakip, «The Immunology of Mammary Gland of Dairy Ruminants between Healthy and Inflammatory Conditions», Journal of Veterinary Medicine, vol. 2014, pp. 1-31, 2014, Accedido: ene. 16, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://www.hindawi.com/journals/jvm/2014/659801/
(83) D. K. Swain, M. S. Kushwah, M. Kaur, y A. K. Dang, «Neutrophil dynamics in the blood and milk of crossbred cows naturally infected with Staphylococcus aureus», Vet World, vol. 8, n.o 3, pp. 336-345, mar. 2015, doi: 10.14202/vetworld.2015.336-345
(84) M. Damm, C. Holm, M. Blaabjerg, M. N. Bro, y D. Schwarz, «Differential somatic cell count—A novel method for routine mastitis screening in the frame of Dairy Herd Improvement testing programs», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 100, n.o 6, pp. 4926-4940, jun. 2017, doi: 10.3168/jds.2016-12409
(85) G. T. Fosgate, I. M. Petzer, y J. Karzis, «Sensitivity and specificity of a hand-held milk electrical conductivity meter compared to the California mastitis test for mastitis in dairy cattle», The Veterinary Journal, vol. 196, n.o 1, pp. 98-102, abr. 2013, doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.07.026
(86) H. Lomander, C. Svensson, C. Hallén-Sandgren, H. Gustafsson, y J. Frössling, «Associations between decreased fertility and management factors, claw health, and somatic cell count in Swedish dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 96, n.o 10, pp. 6315-6323, oct. 2013, doi: 10.3168/jds.2012-6475
(87) J. C. McNally, M. A. Crowe, J. F. Roche, y M. E. Beltman, «Effects of physiological and/or disease status on the response of postpartum dairy cows to synchronization of estrus using an intravaginal progesterone device», Theriogenology, vol. 82, n.o 9, pp. 1263-1272, dic. 2014, doi: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2014.08.006
(88) F. C. Thomas, T. Geraghty, P. B. A. Simões, F. M. Mshelbwala, H. Haining, y P. D. Eckersall, «A pilot study of acute phase proteins as indicators of bovine mastitis caused by different pathogens», Research in Veterinary Science, vol. 119, pp. 176-181, ago. 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2018.06.015
(89) M. J. Fuenzalida, P. M. Fricke, y P. L. Ruegg, «The association between occurrence and severity of subclinical and clinical mastitis on pregnancies per artificial insemination at first service of Holstein cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 98, n.o 6, pp. 3791-3805, jun. 2015, doi: 10.3168/jds.2014-8997
(90) Y. Lavon, E. Ezra, G. Leitner, y D. Wolfenson, «Association of conception rate with pattern and level of somatic cell count elevation relative to time of insemination in dairy cows», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 94, n.o 9, pp. 4538-4545, sep. 2011, doi: 10.3168/jds.2011-4293
(91) R. G. M. Olde Riekerink, H. W. Barkema, y H. Stryhn, «The Effect of Season on Somatic Cell Count and the Incidence of Clinical Mastitis», Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 90, n.o 4, pp. 1704-1715, abr. 2007, doi: 10.3168/jds.2006-567
(92) Comunidad Andina, «Leche Cruda. NA0063:2009». Comunidad Andina, 2009
(93) East African Community, «Eat African Standard. Raw cow milk-Specification». 2006
(94) European Economic Community, «Council directive 92/46/EEC. Commission Document 392L0046.» 1992. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/en/ALL/?uri=CELEX%3A31992L0046
(95) Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería, Pesca y Alimentos, «Industria lechera-Sistema integrado de gestión de la lecheria Argentina. E 229/16- SAGyP.» Secretaría de Agricultura, Ganadería y Pesca, 2016
(96) Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Censo, «Estimación de la producción de leche de vaca en la república», 2020. https://www.inec.gob.pa/archivos/P7421312-13.pdf (accedido dic. 02, 2020)
(97) Asamblea Nacional, «Decreto de Gabinete 229 del 16 de julio de 1969.» Gaceta Oficial del Estado 16,537 del 4 de febrero de 1970, 1969. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://docs.panama.justia.com/federales/decretos-de-gabinete/decreto-de-gabinete-229-de-1969-feb-4-1970.pdf
(98) «Cadena Agroalimentaria de Leche. Panamá». https://mida.gob.pa, 2017. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://mida.gob.pa
(99) D. Berroa, «Informe Final de la Consultoría Sobre la Calidad de la Leche Producida en Panamá a Nivel de Fincas y de Acuerdo a las Normativas Vigentes, en Contraste con las Condiciones de Infraestructura y Manejo del Ganado», TCP/PAN/3402, 2015
(100) C. Gómez, M. Tarté, U. Barría, H. Hernández, C. Rengifo Herrera, y E. Pile, «Mastitis subclínica en explotaciones lecheras del distrito de La Chorrera, Panamá.», Scientia, vol. 26, n.o 2, pp. 37-44, 2017
(101) A. Chang, E. Pile, E. Delgado, y I. Domínguez, «Mastitis entre animales procedentes de fincas productoras de leche grado c en Tortí y algunos corregimientos de Darién, Panamá.», Revista Saberes APUDEP, vol. 2, n.o 1, pp. 80-88, 2019. Accedido: ene. 17, 2021. [En línea]. Disponible en: https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/saberes_apudep/article/view/877
(102) P. Montero-Prado, G. A. Ruiz Morales, y A. Fosatti Carrillo, «Physicochemical characterization and correlation of raw cow’s milk according to classification assigned in Panama», Agronomía Mesoamericana, vol. 32, n.o 3, pp. 939-948, 2021, doi: 10.15517/am.v32i3.45471